3D printers: principles of operation and capabilities of devices for printing in the third dimension

History of 3D printers

The first 3D printers appeared back in the 1980s. At first, the devices were used only by large companies to quickly and more accurately create prototypes of their products. Since its emergence, 3D printing has come a long way — from being used purely in high-tech companies for prototyping purposes to a technology available for home use.

What is a 3D printer?

3D printing is a method of creating a physical object from a digital model file. In simple terms, a 3D printer is a device that «prints» physical objects using plastic, metal, resin, powders and other materials by applying them layer by layer. As a result, a digital 3D model is used to create a real object that you can hold in your hands.

All 3D printers can be divided into two categories:

1. Simple 3D printers.

   They work based on Plastic Jet Printing (PJP) technology, which is the layer-by-layer application of molten plastic onto a platform. These units may have the acronym FDM (Fused Deposition Modeling) or FFF (Fused Filament Fabrication) and are the most in demand today.

2. Professional SLA printers.

   Their work is based on the bonding of resin and laser, which allows to form very precise and thin parts.

Devices designed for 3D printing are actively used both in industrial environments and at home. A professional 3D printer differs from equipment for home use except for its size and price: the latter are more compact and affordable for those wishing to purchase them.

How does a 3D printer work?

The principle of 3D printing is similar to assembling a pyramid from blocks. For better understanding, we can draw an analogy with CNC (computer numerical control) machines. Whereas a CNC machine removes excess material layer by layer from a solid piece of material to produce a finished element, the 3D printing process is reversed: finished 3D models are created by adding material layer by layer.

In general, the 3D printing procedure consists of these sequential steps:

1. Creation of a 3D model.

   This is usually done automatically in a special programme or through 3D scanning of the object, after which the created object is transferred to a USB drive. On the Internet you can find a lot of software for modelling, which can be mastered even by a beginner.

2. Preparation for printing.

   This consists of «slicing» the original model into hundreds or thousands of thin horizontal layers and translating the 3D model into a language understandable to your printer — a digital code that can be read by the printer. The programmes used for «slicing» are called «slicers».

   By the way, the latter may not be necessary if printing is based on CAD (computer-aided design) or via a digital library of parts and models stored in the cloud. In such cases, you only need to connect to the Internet to log in and start automatic printing.

3. The printing process itself.

   In this step, the printer applies molten material to the surface layer by layer until the finished object comes out.

4. Cleaning or curing.

   Involves removing support elements, sanding or curing (depending on printer type) after printing.

What can be printed on a 3D printer?

These advantages of using 3D printers allow them to be used effectively in many industries. For example, in the light industry, 3D printers are used to create toys, cases and stands for smartphones, clothing and footwear. In heavy industry and mechanical engineering, they are used to create tools, spare parts for cars and bicycles.

Another promising area is medicine: here, 3D-printed products are represented by dental prostheses, implants, and orthopaedic elements. And thanks to a promising 3D technology called «bioprinting» it has become possible to produce artificial human organs and body tissues to replace damaged or missing ones. 3D-printed prostheses and some surgical implants are of high quality and relatively inexpensive compared to analogues made using other methods.

In the architectural field, 3D printers can print building models, and in the art and design fields, they can create figurines, decor and accessories. There are printers that «print» chocolate or dough, so the culinary sphere is not left out either. The devices even conquer space: it is known that NASA is already testing 3D printing on the International Space Station.

3D printers are also being used at home. They can be used to make customised items that cannot be bought in shops. And the ability to experiment with different materials and technologies contributes to the development of users' creative abilities and enables them to realise new ideas.

Advantages of using 3D printers

Among the key advantages of the commercial use of 3D printers are the following:

1. The ability to work with a variety of materials (in addition to polymers and polymer resins, raw materials with metal and paper composition, ceramics, fabric, food products are suitable for printing).

2. Reduced labour intensity, because one printer can replace several complex units.

3. Simple operation process.

4. Speed of production.

5. Economic benefits.

How to choose a 3D printer?

When choosing a 3D printer, you should first of all pay attention to such parameters as:

1. Resolution (height, thickness) of the layer.

   This indicator is measured in micrometres (µm), and the higher it is, the higher the quality of the finished product. The layer resolution can range from 16 to 180 µm. The most accurate printers today print with a layer height of 50 µm.

2. Printing speed.

   Keep in mind that the more qualitative the finished part should be, the more time it will take to produce it. In this case, budget models that focus on high printing speed are not the best option.

3. Printing area (zone).

   This printer characteristic determines the size of the finished item. Most often manufacturers specify the print area in cubic centimetres.

The choice of 3D printer also depends on the software available. Modern devices support Wi-Fi and special software for modelling objects, which makes them more convenient to use.

The quality of the chosen material also affects the final result of 3D modelling. ABS-plastic is most often used for manufacturing 3D prototypes. The second place is occupied by PLA-plastic. PVA-plastic, FLEX, Nylon, HIPS, Woodfill and other materials can also be used.

Top 3D printer models

Currently, there is a wide range of Chinese and European-made 3D printers on sale. The top three amateur FDM/FFF models for operation in 2025 are as follows:

• Flashforge Adventurer 3

  The advantages of this powerful Chinese model include intuitive operation, ergonomic housing and a bright touch screen. The developers have also taken care of a set of useful features, including a removable nozzle and a platform with heating support. The device also supports cloud printing, which allows you to control it remotely. The nozzle diameter is 0.4 mm with print speeds from 10 to 100 mm/s.

• Creality Ender 3

  This reliable and powerful model from a European manufacturer works with materials such as coloured ABS and PLA plastics, HIPS. The temperature range provides a wide range of applications. The device has small dimensions and a good printing nozzle with a diameter of 0.4 mm. It provides optimal printing speed from 40 to 120 mm/s. It is possible to load layouts using a memory card or USB. But the feature set is minimal, so take this into account when choosing.

• Gembird 3DP-GEMMA

  Despite its large volume (1.2 litres), the 3D printer of this series has compact dimensions. Also, beginner users are attracted by the convenience of this solution. This European-made model works on the basis of FDM or FFF technology and allows you to download several file formats (obj, gcode). The device supports high-level software WiiBuilder and Cura, as well as a 3.5-inch display based on LCD technology. But compared to previous models, the Gembird 3DP-GEMMA's print speed reaches only 40mm/s.

Some of the best SLA models include:

• Creality Halot-One Pro

  This is a Chinese model, which is based on the ARM Cortex-M4 processor and is considered one of the market leaders. Immediately worth noting is its compact size and improved light source. Control is carried out due to high-quality proprietary software from a smartphone Wi-Fi. The developers also took care of the dual cooling system, the presence of 6 UV lamps and convenient touch control. A useful option is printing management with the help of Creality Cloud storage. But there is one disadvantage: the model is quite noisy.

• Anycubic Photon Mono 4K

  The version modernised by the Chinese developers has an even more robust closed housing. Light penetration has been increased by a further 7%, which has a positive effect on the speed of operation. The main advantages of this series are the high print speed and 4K resolution, which results in high precision. The productivity at the same time is 50 mm/h. The design is characterised by a low noise level and minimal release of unpleasant odours. The presence of a matrix with quartz lenses positively affects the dispersion of UV rays

  As you can see, a modern 3D printer and its capabilities can turn the ideas born in the head into physical reality. Already today, these devices are changing approaches to manufacturing, design, and even medicine. And while 3D printing technology is still evolving, it is becoming more and more accessible. It may not be long before a 3D printer becomes as commonplace in the home as a regular inkjet printer once was. Especially since the price of a 3D printer has dropped significantly in recent years, and these devices have become more affordable for do-it-yourselfers.